HYPNOSIS

WAKING

SLEEP

- Increase in oral temperature, with greater increases in other bodily regions during neutral hypnosis (Reid and Curtsinger 1968, Timney and Barber 1969). No changes found by others (Jackson and Hastings 1981, Peters and Stern 1973). Additionally, physiological changes in the eye, including reduction of blood supply in vascular anastomoses, and engorgement of vessels of the sclera were found (Strosberg, Irwen, and Vics 1962).

- No increases or changes in any of the parameters were found (Jackson and Hastings 1981, Peters and Stern 1973, Reid and Curtsinger 1968, Strosberg, Irwen, and Vics 1962, Timney and Barber 1969).

- Slower and deeper respiration rate (Crasilneck and Hall 1985, Udolf 1987), circumoral lip pallor, slow speech, and a certain degree of lethargy upon awakening were found during neutral hypnosis (Crasilneck and Hall 1985). Also increased skin resistance as measured by GSR apparatus, indicating decreased sweat gland activity (Udolf 1987). Greater conductance levels following stress were also registered, with increase occurring according to hypnotizability (Wickramasekera, Pope, and Kolm 1996).

- Faster and shallower respiration rate (Crasilneck and Hall 1985, Udolf 1987), normal speed speech, and no lethargy (Crasilneck and Hall 1985). Also decreased skin resistance, indicating increased sweat gland activity (Udolf 1987). No increase of skin conductance levels following stress (Wickramasekera, Pope, and Kolm 1996).

- No undulatory eyeball movements during induction (Zikmund 1964), and no paralysis and diminution of basic reflexes or muscle tone during neutral hypnosis (Evans 1977, 1982). Muscle tension significantly lower than in waking (Barber 1961, 1965), and gastric secretion is depressed (Crasilneck and Hall 1959), with lactulose orocaecal transit time being delayed (Beaugerie et al 1991).

- May alter relation of cortical and subcortical communication, particularly involving the hypothalamus, reticular formation, and limbic system (Bartlett 1966).

- Muscle tension not as reduced as in hypnosis (Barber 1961, 1965), and gastric secretion not depressed (Crasilneck and Hall 1985). No delay in lactulose orocaecal transit time (Beaugerie et al 1991).

- No alteration in relation of cortical and subcortical communication (Bartlett 1966).

- Undulatory eyeball movements present when falling asleep (Zikmund 1964) and during stage 1 sleep skeletal musculature is effectively paralyzed, so reflexes like the knee jerk are diminished (Evans 1977, 1982).

- EEG differs from both waking and sleep, though minor similarities are present (Lerner 1963): similarity is to that of stage 1 sleep and waking, except for absence of REM’s (Evans 1977, 1982). Additionally, an increase in delta EEG activity (Rainville et al 1999) and higher frequency EEG activity (around 40-Hz) is observed during selective attention (Schnyer and Allen 1995)., as well as increased mean theta power (Sabourin et al 1990), with significant theta power increases in the more posterior areas of the cortex, and alpha activity increases across all sites during induction (Graffin, Ray, and Lundy 1995).

- EEG differs from both hypnosis and sleep (Lerner 1963), but is similar to hypnosis and stage 1 sleep except for the absence of REM’s (Evans 1977, 1982). No change in delta EEG activity (Rainville et al 1999) or higher EEG frequency during attention (Schnyer and Allen 1995), mean theta power is less than in hypnosis (Sabourin et al 1990). Greater theta in the more frontal areas of the cortex (Graffin, Ray, and Lundy 1995).

- EEG differs from both hypnosis and waking (Lerner 1963), but is similar to hypnosis and waking, except for the presence of REM’s (Evans 1977, 1982). No attention, so no higher frequency.

- Less inconsistencies in logic are tolerated (Orne 1959), with tolerance for inconsistencies or anomalies in experience or perception (i.e., trance logic) (Perry and Walsh 1978, Ryan and Sheehan 1977, Sheehan 1977), and greater speed of information processing (Friedman et al 1987). Learning of conditioned reflexes is enhanced over and above that of the waking state, and the brain is unable to validate incoming information against stored data, making unreality be interpreted as reality (Kroger 1977), as behavior is mediated by the phylogenetically older brain structures (Reyher 1968).

- No reduction in tolerance for inconsistencies (Orne 1959), less or no tolerance for inconsistencies or anomalies in experience or perception (Perry and Walsh 1978, Ryan and Sheehan 1977, Sheehan 1977) and no increase in information processing (Friedman et al 1987). Additionally, there is no increased learning of conditioned reflexes, and an ability to validate incoming information, therefore validation occurs, permitting unreality to be interpreted for what it really is (Kroger 1977), as behavior is controlled by the neocortex, mediation by the phylogenetically older brain structures being difficult or impossible to produce in this state (Reyher 1968).

- Conditioned reflexes or physiologic responses to a repeatedly given stimulus cannot be established (Kroger 1977).

- Nygard found blood flow to the cerebral vessels to be unchanged (Crasilneck and Hall 1985), although significant increases in rCBF during neutral hypnosis have been registered, with peak rCBF increases especially in the caudal part of the right anterior cingulate sulcus, and bilaterally in inferior frontal gyri. Meanwhile, rCBF decreases were found in the right inferior parietal lobule, the left precuneus, and the posterior cingulate gyrus (Rainville et al. 1999) - in fact, activation of Brodmann area 32 (right anterior cingulate) has been found - on stimulation by an auditory stimulus or the hallucination of an auditory stimulus (Szechtman et al. 1998). A global absolute bilateral increase of cortical blood flow has also been measured (Meyer et al. 1989, Ulrich et al. 1987).

- No rCBF increases or decreases were registered (Rainville et al. 1999), neither any activation of Brodmann area 32 (Szechtman et al. 1998). Similarly, there was no global bilateral increase in cortical blood flow (Meyer et al. 1989, Ulrich et al. 1987).

- Nygard found that blood flow to the cerebral vessels is notably altered by increased pulsation (Crasilneck and Hall 1985).

- Cardiac activity almost similar to that of waking but faster than in sleep (Gorton 1949a, b), with neutral hypnosis affecting heart rate variability, shifting the balance of sympathovagal interaction toward enhanced parasympathetic, concomitant with reduction of sympathetic tone (De Benedittis et al 1994). Also significant increases in all cardiorespiratory and perceptual variables over increasing exercise intensities and in oxygen consumption (P=0.0095) (Kraemer et al 1992). However, a decrease in the waking levels of oxygen saturation was measured in neutral hypnosis (Barber 1961), while in stressful recall there was an increase in venous blood flow through a limb (Vanderhoof and Clancy 1962). Reduced systolic blood pressure was also registered in hypnotic registration (Holroyd, Nuechterlein, and Shapiro 1982).

- Cardiac activity almost similar to that of hypnosis, but faster than in sleep (Gorton 1949a, b), and there is no difference in heart rate variability, consequently no shift toward enhanced parasympathetic activity (De Benedittis et al 1994). No significant increases in cardiorespiratory and perceptual variables over increasing exercise intensities were measured, neither any relatively greater increase in oxygen consumption (Kraemer et al. 1992), nor decrease in oxygen saturation levels in neutral hypnosis (Barber 1961). No increase in venous blood flow was measured during stressful recall (Vanderhoof and Clancy 1962). Also no reduction in systolic blood pressure was obtained by biofeedback (Holroyd, Nuechterlein, and Shapiro 1982).

- Cardiac activity slower than in hypnosis and waking (Gorton 1949a, b).

- Pavlov maintained localization of cerebral inhibition, which inhibition has been found to be of the dominant hemisphere (Gruzelier et al. 1984): there is predominance of electrical activity and heat production in the right hemisphere during neutral hypnosis (Simonov 1990), and disactivation of inferior temporal areas, with a relative increase of the right hemisphere over the left (Meyer et al. 1989).

- No cerebral inhibition present, and no predominance, disactivation, or relative increase.

- Pavlov maintained this state to have generalized cerebral inhibition.

- The inhibiting tendency of the cortex on the ANS is greatly reduced (Bigelow, Cameron, and Koroljow 1956), and electrical stimulation of the thalamus can interrupt the hypnotic state if sufficiently strong (Stewart and Crasilneck 1984), with mechanical stimulus to the hippocampal region also abruptly terminating the hypnotic trance (Crasilneck, McCranie, and Jenkins 1956). The occipital areas (including visual and paravisual cortex) become relatively deactivated during the hypnotic state, and some metabolic recruitment occurs in structures involved in sensorimotor functions (Grond et al. 1995). Lack of task-appriopriate activity is present (Edmonston and Moscovitz 1990).

- There is no cortical inhibiting tendency on the ANS (Bigelow, Cameron, and Koroljow 1956), and no state interruptions occur. Also no relative deactivation of the occipital areas (Grond et al. 1995) and activity is task appropriate (Edmonston and Moscovitz 1990).

- Significant reductions of pain reported even with only hypnotic relaxation (Zachariae and Bjerring 1994).

- Greater activity in the amplitudes of evoked potentials in hypnosis (De Pascalis et al 1998, Zachariae and Bjerring 1994).

- Brain ERP’s (e.g., N1, P1) sensitive to selective attention (Schnyer and Allen 1995).

- Significant reduction of tonic elevator madibular (EMG) activity (43-50%) and great increase of inocclusion space (X=8.90mm) was found (Manns et al. 1990).

- No pain reduction reported (Zachariae and Bjerring 1994).

- Less activity in the amplitudes of evoked potentials than in hypnosis (De Pascalis et al 1998, Zachariae and Bjerring 1994).

- No sensitivity of ERP’s found to attention (Schnyer and Allen 1995).

- No EMG reduction was found, and inocclusion space was normal (X=2.22mm) (Manns et al. 1990).

- No statistically significant alteration in pulse rate (Barber 1961, 1965, Crasilneck and Hall 1960), blood pressure, and respiratory rate during induction (Crasilneck and Hall 1960).

SLEEP

- No alteration of blood glucose, calcium, and phosphorus (Jana and Pattie 1965).

- No alteration of basal metabolism (Jana 1965), or statistically significant global activation or metabolic depression (Grond et al. 1995).

- Basal metabolism rate lower by 8.72% (Jana 1965).

- Identical EEG patterns (McCranie, Crasilneck and Tetter 1955, Schwartz, Bickford, and Rasmussen 1955), and Nygard found no difference in cerebral circulation.

- No paralysis or diminution of basic reflexes or muscle tone (Evans 1977, 1982).

- During stage 1 sleep, skeletal musculature is effectively paralyzed (Evans 1977, 1982).

- Vasodilation similar to waking but relaxed (Peters and Stern 1973).

- No difference in heart rate decrease, alpha activity, skin conductivity, and respiratory rate (Bauer and McCanne 1980); electrodermal responses similar to normal, relaxed condition (Edmonston 1968).

- Inhibition of alpha waves when visual hallucination suggestions are given, similar to a subject thinking/opening his eyes, and permitting a visual pattern to stimulate his occipital cortex (Dynes 1947).

- No significant difference in peptide F in concentrations during exercise (P greater than 0.05), exercise heart rate, RPE, or minute ventilation (P greater than 0.05) (Kraemer et al 1992).

HIGH HYPNOTIZABLE

LOW HYPNOTIZABLE

- Increased skin conductance levels following stress (Wickramasekera, Pope, Kolm 1996).

- Lower skin conductance levels following stress (Wickramasekera, Pope, Kolm 1996).

- Significantly greater hemispheric asymmetries (right greater than left) in parietal region in high theta (5.5-7.45 Hz), high alpha (11.5-13.45 Hz), and beta activity (16.5-25 Hz), during the experiencing of emotions. Also greater sustained attentional abilities (Crawford, Clarke, Kitner-Triolo 1996).

- Less hemispheric asymmetries in parietal region. Also less sustained attentional abilities (Crawford, Clarke, Kitner-Triolo 1996).

- Higher theta1 amplitude (4-6 Hz) across the left and right frontal areas, and the right posterior area (middle of O1-P3-T5, O2-P4-T6). Also smaller alpha1 amplitude (8.25-10 Hz) over the left and right frontal areas (F3, F4), and higher theta2 (6.25-8 Hz), alpha1, and 40 Hz (36-44 Hz) amplitudes measured, during neutral hypnosis (De Pascalis et al 1998).

- Less EEG amplitudes and asymmetries found (De Pascalis et al 1998).

- Greater levels of emotional experiences, especially negative, with opposite 40 Hz hemispheric asymmetries over the anterior and posterior scalp regions (ibid.).

- Less emotional experiences, especially negative (ibid.).

- Significantly lower total and beta1 amplitudes (De Pascalis and Perrone 1996), and a decrease in theta activity mesaured (Graffin, Ray, Lundy 1995), during normal hypnotic induction.

- No lower parameters found (De Pascalis and Perrone 1996), and an increase in theta activity measured (Graffin, Ray, Lundy 1995), during normal hypnotic induction.

- Greater mean theta power found at all occipital (O1, O2), central (C3, C4), and frontal (F3, F4) locations, and greater theta activity in the left hemisphere, during neutral hypnosis (Sabourin et al 1990).

- Less mean theta power found at all locations, and weak asymmetry, during neutral hypnosis (Sabourin et al 1990).

- Significant increase in overall CBF, with bilateral CBF activation of the orbito-frontal cortex, and a CBF increase over the somatosensory cortex, during hypnotic analgesia (Crawford et al 1993).

- No significant increase in overall CBF, neither any bilateral CBF activation of the same regions found. However, a CNF decrease in the somatosensory cortex was registered, during hypnotic analgesia (Crawford et al 1993).

- Greater increase of vagal efferent activity (De Benedittis et al 1994).

- Much less increase of vagal efferent activity (De Benedittis et al 1994).

- During auditory stimulation, an increase was registered in the right temporal lobe (Jutai et al 1993).

- No increase in same region during auditory stimulation (Jutai et al 1993).

- Greater right hemispheric activity during hypnotic induction (De Pascalis and Penna 1990).

- A reduction in both left and right hemispheric activities, during hypnotic induction (De Pascalis and Penna 1990).

- Increased focusing, sustained attention, and ignoring of irrelevant stimuli (Crawford 1994).

- Less focusing, less sustained attention, and less ignoring of irrelevant stimuli (Crawford 1994).

- Reduction in word generation to letter categories, and bilateral reductions in finger tapping dexterity (Gruzelier and Warren 1993).

- Increase in word generation to letter categories, and also bilateral increases in finger tapping dexterity (Gruzelier and Warren 1993).

- Underlying brain patterns associated with imagery being displayed (Ray 1997).

- Underlying brain patterns associated with cognitive activity (i.e., mental math) being displayed (Ray 1997).

- Able to reduce both the sensory and motivational components of pain (Price and Barber 1987).

- Reduce the motivational component of pain, being less able or unable to reduce the sensory component (Price and Barber 1987).

- Respond to hypnotic suggestions extra-volitionally, and have a greater ability to access affect. Consequently, hypnosis occurs by both absorption and dissociation (Abela 1999).

- Respond to suggestions more intentionally, and have a lesser ability to access affect, due to less emotional experiences. Consequently, hypnosis occurs by absorption only (Abela 1999).

- Process information with greater automaticity (defined as a way of processing information effortlessly, rapidly, and involutarily [Shiffrin and Schneider 1977]), and more likely to learn and implement a strategy to improve performance. Also shorter mean reaction time to testing tasks (e.g., Stroop), significantly shorter latencies of a pre-300 negativity at the frontal site for word and neutral conditions, significantly slower at naming incongruent stimuli, and faster automatic response faster. So the greater automaticity demonstrated is not exclusively verbal, but rather perceptual in nature (Laurence, Slako, and Le Beau 1998).

- Process information with less automaticity, and less likely to learn and implement a strategy to improve performance. Longer mean reaction time to testing tasks; longer latencies for word and neutral conditions; significantly faster at naming simultaneously incongruent stimuli; display the automatic response more slowly (Laurence, Slako, and Le Beau 1998).

- Process perceptual and verbal information more automatically, and automatise attentional strategies (Nadon, Laurence, and Perry 1987), consequently more prone to memory creation and confabulation in general (Laurence, Slako, and Le Beau 1998).

- Process information less automatically and do not automatise attentional strategies (Nadon, Laurence, and Perry 1987), working them out (mental math). Thus, less prone to memory creation and confabulation (Laurence, Slako, and Le Beau 1998).

- More EEG theta (4-8 Hz) power, a pattern of coherence suggesting more frontal to posterior connections (12 Hz), shorter propagation times, greater coherence between anterior brain regions (30 Hz), and a pattern of chaos dimensionality consistent with more imagery processing. Greater flexibility in ability to shift set, and more fluid in information processing (Ray, Blai, Aikins, Coyle, and Bjick 1998).

- Less EEG theta power, a inverse pattern of coherence suggesting posterior to frontal connections, longer propagation times, less coherence between anterior brain regions, and a pattern of EEG dimensionality more consistent with verbal cognitive processing. Less flexibility in shift-set ability, and less fluid in information processing (Ray, Blai, Aikins, Coyle, and Bjick 1998).

- Stronger ability in attention focusing on relevant stimuli (De Pascalis 1998), and greater capacity to access life-emotional experiences. Positive emotions (gladness and happiness) showed a left and right hemisphere increase of 40-Hz EEG density, while negative emotions (anger and fear) showed a density increase in right hemisphere, and density decrease in the left hemisphere (De Pascalis et al 1987, 1989, 1998).

- Lesser ability to access life-emotional experiences, and no differential hemispheric patterns among emotional types (De Pascalis et al 1987, 1989, 1998).

- Significant amplitude reductions in the P300 component of the ERP´s during obstructive hallucination of visual stimuli (Spiegel et al 1985, Barabasz et al 1995, 1996, De Pascalis 1994).

- No significant reductions in the P300 component of ERP´s during obstructive hallucination (Spiegel et al 1985, Barabasz et al 1995, 1996, De Pascalis 1994).

- Significantly greater pain intensity reduction during dissociated imagery and focused analgesia, significantly smaller P3 and greater N2 peaks in temporal cortical region during focused analgesia, and smaller total number of evoked skin conductance responses during dissociated imagery and focused analgesia (De Pascalis et al 1998).

- Less intensity reduction during dissociated imagery and focused analgesia (De Pascalis et al 1998).

- Engagement of left frontal attentional mechanisms during fixation, then undergoes frontal inhibitory processes (letting-go) during eye closure and suggestions of relaxation. Also reduction in orienting and/or faster habitatuation (Gruzelier 1998).

- Fail to show engagement of left frontal attentional control mechanisms, or if there is focal attentional engagement, fail to undergo the inhibitory, letting-go process. Also retarded habituation (Gruzelier 1998).

- Large magnitude MisMatch negativity (MMN) at baseline, and a progressive reduction in MMN with each stage of induction (ibid.).

- Difference wave absent at baseline, with a progressive increase in MMN (ibid.).

- Increase in omission errors and greater variability in RT´s from baseline to hypnosis with a computerised vigilance task (Kallai et al. 1998).

- Reduction in errors and RT variance (Kallai et al. 1998).

- Inhibitory influences on attention with hypnosis (Gruzelier 1998).

- Improved attentional performance as induction progresses (Gruzelier 1998).

- Reduction in connectivity within left prefrontal region (i.e., between left lateral [FP1 and F7] and medial [F3 and FTC1] placements) demonstrated, indicating anterior disconnection (Kaiser et al 1997).

- Increase in connectivity found (Kaiser et al 1997).

- Increase in processing times specific to the right hand (Gruzelier et al 1984, Cikurel and Gruzelier 1990), evidencing anterior inhibition laterally asymmetrical and biased toward the left hemisphere (Gruzelier 1998).

- No increase in processing times and no lateral asymmetry (Gruzelier et al 1984, Cikurel and Gruzelier 1990).

- Strictly lateralised enhancement of right posterior processing, indicated by perceptual sensitivity (Cikurel and Gruzelier 1990, McCormack and Gruzelier 1993).

- No lateralised enhancement of right posterior processing, as indicated by perceptual sensitivity (Cikurel and Gruzelier 1990, McCormack and Gruzelier 1993).

- Asymmetry in orienting responses´ amplitude favouring the right hemisphere during hypnosis, predominant asymmetry favouring left hemisphere during baseline (Gruzelier and Brow 1985).

- No reliable asymmetry in the amplitude of orienting responses either during hypnosis or baseline (Gruzelier and Brow 1985).

- Better control of pain due to more effective frontal attentional system permitting attention/disattention to incoming stimuli (Crawford et al 1998).

- Less able to control pain due to less effective frontal attentional system (Crawford et al 1998).

- Substantially more theta power at midfrontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital sites during attention, with significantly more left hemisphere dominant high theta power in the temporal (T3, T4) region, when attending to cold pressor pain in the left hand. Also significant reduction in left hemisphere power and an increase in right hemisphere power in the upper theta band during hypnotic analgesia (Crawford 1990).

- Substantially less theta power at indicated sites, with significantly less high theta power in left hemisphere during cold pressor pain in the left hand. Also no hemispheric differences, remaining similar in both conditions (Crawford 1990).

- Reduction of P70 amplitudes in the far anterior frontal region, as well as reduced P200 and P300 amplitudes more posteriorly (Horton et al 1998).

- P200 and P300 amplitudes not reduced so posteriorly (Horton et al 1998).

- Significant reductions of delta and beta in the right hemisphere in stimulus-bound EEG following electric shocks to the left wrist (De Pascalis and Perrone 1996).

- No significant reductions of delta and beta in same stimulus-bound EEG in right hemisphere (De Pascalis and Perrone 1996).

- Greater disposition for more focused and sustained attention, deeper absorptive involvement in experiences, greater cognitive flexibility (Crawford 1989, Crawford and Allen 1983), and faster reaction times to complex decision-making tasks (Crawford, Horton, and Lamas 1998).

- Less focused and sustained attention, less absorption in experiences, less cognitive flexibility (Crawford 1989, Crawford and Allen 1983), and slower reaction times to complex decision-making tasks (Crawford, Horton, and Lamas 1998).